Vedas have mantras, loosely translated as sacred utterances. The Vedic sages assigned the status of divinity to a sacred sound whom they called वाक् (vAk). They described the process of vocalization of sound as वैखरी (vaikharI); and the mental process while something is spoken as मध्यमा(madhymA). Maharshi Yaska, while defining a mantra in the Nirukta, says: मन्त्रा मननात् that is, what is mulled over is a mantra. मनन is the mental activity associated with the spokenspeech which is called वाच्(voice) in Sanskrit.The etymological connect between the highlighted English words and their Sanskrit roots is clear. The definition of a mantra in Shatpatha Brahmana speaks of वाग्घिमन्त्रः (vAgghi mantraH) and वाग्वै मन्त्रः (vAgvaiH mantraH) which can be translated as ‘the speech only is the mantra’ and ‘the mantra, that is the speech’ respectively. A mantra serves the purpose of communication by speech with the divine.
How mantras should be pronounced:
Vedic mantras have words (शब्द -zabda), and words, in turn, have a combination of letters (वर्ण-varNa), intonations (स्वर-svara), meter (मात्रा-mAtrA), articulation (बल-bala), tune (साम-sAma) and coalition (संतान-santAna). In Sanskrit, unlike the languages of the later day, there are no two ways of pronouncing any sound. The pronunciation of a Vedic mantra is of utmost importance and determined by the aforesaid six units. Thus, a varNa denotes the individual sound in the form of vowels and consonants; and svara- the pitch or accents; mAtrA- the prosodial measure, bala- the effort in articulation, sAma- musical notes, and santAna being the euphonic conjunction (सन्धि=saMdhi) and/or compounding of words (समास=samAsa). The formal teaching of these six elements is what is called शिक्षा शास्त्र– (zikSA zAstra) or the science of Vedic phonetics. As is said, as well: अथ शीक्षां व्याख्यास्याम: । वर्ण: स्वर:। मात्रा बलम्। साम सन्तान:। इत्युक्त: शीक्षाध्याय:। (atha zIkSAma vyAkhyAsyAmaH| varNaH svaraH| mAtrA balaM| sAma santAnaH| ityuktaH zIkSAdhyAyaH) (तै.उ. शिक्षावल्ली1/2/10). The Vedic science of phonetics reached the highest degree of perfection and dismissed any scope of ambiguity or mispronunciation of any Sanskrit word. This guaranteed purity of utterance of Vedic texts which survived through millennia through the tradition of oral transmission (श्रुति परम्परा- zruti paraMparA), even in the absence of writing, printing, or any other methods of documentation.
Four categories of Vedic Mantras:
As the Katyayana Shrauta Sutra says- “ऋचो यजूंषि सामानि निगदा मन्त्राः”. there are four types of Vedic manrtas- richA, yaju, sama and nigada,
A mantra comprised by feet or meter units (pada) and verses (chhanda) is called ऋचा (RcA) which make up the hymns of RgVeda. RcAs are uttered in the praise of Gods. One popular example is the सावित्री मन्त्र (sAvitrI mantra) of Rigveda, also called the गायत्री मन्त्र (gAyatrI mantra) in the common parlance, which is composed of three units: तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम्। भर्गो देवस्य धीमिहि। धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्।। (tatsavitur vareNyam/ bhargo devasya dhImahi/ dhiyo yonaH prachodayAt) and set in a 27-letter verse called Gayatri. This RcA, being the 10th verse of the 62nd hymn in the Book 3 of RgVeda, was composed by sage Vishvamitra. This mantra is dedicated to the God Savita who is the illuminance of Sun deified. The meaning of this mantra is “That Savita whom we adore; we meditate upon the effulgence of the God; may our due intellect be enlightened.” As a spiritual exercise the mantra is preceded with the holiest of sounds, ॐ (O3M) called प्रणव praNava which is followed by भूः भुवः स्वः (bhUH, bhuvaH, svaH) (the three sacred words are called महाव्याहृतिः mahAvyAhRtIH denoting the three dimensional world-i.e. Earth, atmosphere and the sky)
The one without any definite sequence of words and pada is called यजुः (yajuH) which make up the mantras of Yajurveda and which are used in various यज्ञ (yajJa) rituals. One popular example is the शांति मन्त्र Shanti mantra of the Shukla Yajur Veda which is composed in the form of a prose-
ॐ द्यौः शान्तिरन्तरिक्षं शान्तिःपृथिवी शान्तिरापः शान्तिरोषधयः शान्तिः ।
वनस्पतयः शान्तिर्विश्वेदेवाः शान्तिर्ब्रह्म शान्तिःसर्वं शान्तिः शान्तिरेव शान्तिः सा मा शान्तिरेधि ॥
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥…..
O3M, Peace be in the Sky; Peace be in the Space; Peace be upon the Earth; Peace be in Water; Peace be in Plants; Peace be in Trees; Peace be in Gods; Peace is in Brahma; Peace may pervade everywhere; Peace alone is in Peace ; May you be that Peace.O3M, Peace, Peace, Peace.
Those mantras which are suitable for singing are called sAma (compare English psalms) and contained in the Samaveda. Majority of these mantras are RcAs only, but some are novel content of the Samaveda. These mantras are set into musical notes and therefore, have a special emotional appeal. They evolved into Indian classical music.
The six thousand mantras of Atharva Veda, sometimes called अथर्वन् ‘atharvans’ also, fall in all the three typologies as above, and they are recognized for mystic powers conferring an all-encompassing wellness. Here is given one mantra from यक्ष्मानाशन सूक्तम् (yakSmAnAzana sUktam) or the disease dispelling hymn of the Atharva Veda along with its English translation:
शं मे परस्मै गात्राय शमस्त्ववराय मे। शं मे चतुर्भ्यो अग्ङेभ्यः शमस्तु तन्वे3 मम।।
Well be it with my upper frame, well be it with my lower parts.
With my four limbs let it be well. Let all my body be in health. (Griffith translation)
All the four Vedas have their corresponding Brahmana books. The Shatapatha Brahman is related to Yajurveda and amongst the Brahmana literature, it has the most elaborate description of the rituals associated with yaJja. The Brahmana literature emphasizes upon the glorified meaning of a Vedic mantra (मन्त्रार्थ) and every so often relates the mantra to some act to be performed during a Vedic yaJja. Besides the Vedic mantra, a Brahmana also contains प्रैष वाक्य (praiSa vAkya) which is either a command “to do so and so” or an external expression of the performer “while doing so and so”. The praiSa vAkya conveying a command or expression through which some step towards a ritual is imperative is called a निगद nigada mantra.
How is a Vedic mantra interpreted?
Mimamsa Shastra मीमांसा शास्त्र, a branch of Vedic philosophy which deals with ritual actions and social obligations, premises that sound is eternal and there is an everlasting link between a word and its sense. It provides a system for interpretation of Vedic mantras. Sage Jaimini founded the principle that any sacred enterprise (=अनुष्ठान anuSThAna) fructifies through uttering a mantra as it reminds the intended message (अर्थ artha) or else it does not ever. Not just that, the Mimamsa further elaborates the principle that while undertaking an anushthana, remembering the intended meaning of a mantra only is purposeful because it signifies a ritual that yields the desired reward. Henceforth, a mantra enables the performer to attain the implied outcome (अपूर्व apUrva) of the religious enterprise. Infringing upon this principle fails to get the fruit of an anushthana. In the book मीमांसा परिभाषा (Mimamsa Paribhasha by Shri Krishnayajva) it is said that “प्रयोगकालीनार्थस्मरणहेतुतया मन्त्राणामुपयोग इति वक्ष्यते” which means a mantra phraseology is perceived as that which helps in remembering the meaning through orthoepy. Similarly, in the अर्थ संग्रह (Arthasangraha by Laugakshi Bhaskara acharya) a mantra is defined as “प्रयोगसमवेतार्थस्मारका मन्त्राः ।” ‘what exercises memory to remembering the message that is intended at the time of its application’.
What is the correct way of applying a mantra?
The injunction to be followed while uttering a particular mantra is called विनियोग (viniyoga) which guides the correct application of a mantra as against a self-construed meaning. Viniyoga of a mantra is a percept which conveys a certain objective of the mantra, which creates a desire to perform a particular sacred activity. The meaning of viniyoga must be taken as per the principle of शेषत्वेन अन्वय ‘sheshatven anvaya’, that is, as a combination of its components. The two components are fundamentally the glorified meaning (artha) of the mantra and its application (विधि vidhi) and that is how the overall objective (प्रयोग prayoga) of a mantra is implied. A famous illustration is the praish mantra of Yajurveda इमामगृभ्णन्रशनां. The intrinsic meaning of the mantra is to command the performer of the yaJja “to hold this rein.” A rein is used to bridle both a horse and an ass (and by the way, both these animals were tamed in the Vedic era). The glorified meaning of this mantra is however, that the performer should hold the rein of a horse only and not hold the rein of an ass. The implied meaning of ‘इमामगृभ्णन्रशनां’ is signified by the viniyoga of the mantra, that is, ‘अश्वाभिधानीमादत्ते’ whereby this mantra is applicable only to ‘holding the rein of a horse’. The overall objective (prayoga) of this mantra, amongst a set of mantras related to the चयन याग प्रकरण chayana yAga prakaran (procedure of selection of sacrifices), is to orchestrate three animals, namely horse, ass, and goat while preparing the bricks for the sacrificial altar and the crucible for holding fire in the ‘mahAvrata somayAga’. The ritual before fire is kindled specifically calls for the horse to lead the order of animals up to the place wherefrom soil is shovelled and then the animals laden with soil move in a reverse order up to the camp where bricks and crucible are made.
How the mantras are used during the Vedic rites?
The SUTRA stratum of Vedic literature contains various books in the category of श्रौत सूत्र (Shrauta sutra) and गृह्य सूत्र (Grihya Sutra), which respectively deal with the entire array of Vaidic yaJjas and household rituals or the rites of passage, such as the ceremonies of birth =जात कर्म (jAtakarma), initiation= उपनयन (upanayana), marriage= सप्तपदी (saptapadI), and death= अन्त्येष्टि (antyeSTI) besides the ceremonial offering to the ancestors =श्राद्ध (zraddha), one of the most important duty of Vedic dharma. Herein too, the Brahmana principle of intrinsic artha and Mimamsa principle of glorified meaning or apUrva is applied in relation to the practice or vidhi is applicable to the specific set of mantras taken from the quartet of Rig, yaju, sAma and nigada. For example, the vidhi of mantras to be uttered by the groom is at each of the seven steps (Saptapadi) while the couple take rounds of the sacred fire. These mantras are given in the Ashwalayana Grihya Sutra, which is based on the RgVeda or Taittariya mantra-prashna Ekagni Kanda, which is based on the Krishna Yajurveda. The inherent meaning is remindful of seven items which the groom prays Lord Vishnu to bestow upon his bride. These are strength (बल=bala), vigour (ऊर्जा UrjA), wealth (रायस् rAyas), happiness (मायोभव्य mAyobhavya), progeny (प्रजा prajA) good harvest years (ऋतु Rtu) and mutual bonding in observance of all commitments (सखा मामनुव्रता sakhA mAmanuvratA). It is followed by another set of Mantras to be spoken by the bride and the groom, while holding each other’s hands, and the inherent meaning conveys certain vows, promises and commitments to be observed by the couple in their future life.
Thus, one can see an impeccable mechanism exists for pronunciation, interpretation, and ritualistic application of Vedic mantras. This has ensured an immutable form of Vedic mantras over millennia in all activities of life whether नित्य कर्म daily obligatory rites (nitya karma) or नैमित्तिक कर्म obligatory rites on special occasions (naimittika karma).
The four subsidiary अवान्तर (avAntara) divisions of the Vedic mantras:
In accordance with the method of their application in a rite, subsidiary divisions of mantra evolved in the Sutras. They are determined by the relative positioning of utterance (उच्चारण uccAraNa) and the corresponding ritualistic action (कर्म karma).
1.Karana-mantra: by uttering the करणमन्त्र (karaNa mantra) the corresponding karma is performed. One common example is the स्वाहा (swAhA) mantras spoken at the time of fire-sacrifice, which are to be always followed by an offering in the yaJja fire. Similarly, the स्वधा (swadhA) mantras which are uttered while oblation (तर्पण tarpana) is offered to the departed ancestorsor theपितृ Pitris are Karana mantras only as the corresponding act can be performed only after the mantra has been uttered.
2. Kriyamananuvadi-mantra: this mantra ushers into Karma–anushthana. An example of a क्रियमाणानुवादि मन्त्र (kriyAmANAnuvAdi mantra) is the pronunciation of yuvA suvAsA (RV III.1.3) RcA at the time of wrapping up the sacrificial post with a cloth or coloured rope.
युवा सुवासा परिवीत आगात्स उ श्रेयान्भव त जायमान: |तं धीरास: कवय उन्नयंति स्वाध्यो३ मनसा देवयन्त: ||ऋग्वेद ३.८.४ ||
3. Anumantrana mantra: this mantra is uttered after the Karma is done with, For example, at the end of Prayaja yaaga, the performer utters एको ममैका तस्य योsस्मान् द्वेष्टि यं च वयं द्विष्मः, which is example of an अनुमन्त्रण मन्त्र (anumantraNa mantra). The implied outcome of this mantra is to grant victory to the performer who is blessed with the progeny of sons and at the same time his enemy is jinxed with a progeny of daughters who will leave him unsupported, after their marriage. The time of uttering this mantra is after the yaJja is over and the method requires the performer to press the ground with the great toe of his right foot while uttering this mantra.
4. Japa-mantra: the mantra that is only for the act of communicating with the deity or making a reverent entreaty to deity is called a जपमन्त्र (japa-mantra). No related karma is performed before or after. ‘आशासने मयीदमिति यजमानो जपति‘ (का० ३॥४॥ २१) in the Kaushatiki Shraut Sutra is a set of mantras which is repeated mindfully while praying to Indra, the presiding deity of the yaJja for various boons. Whereas the first three mantras have a manifest significance, japa mantras have intangible objective, that is what yagniks and commentators theorize. The purpose of doing japa is to establish an intense communication with the deity. Thus at the end of the main yaga, the priest gives blessings (आशिषं) to the performer (यजमानः) and asks him to mindfully repeat japa mantras while partaking the remaining offering (पुरोडाशशेषप्राशनसमये), such as इन्द्रः परमेश्वर इदमिन्द्रियं मयि दधातु । इदम् अस्मदपेक्षितम् इन्द्रियं वीर्य मयि यजमाने स्थापयतु । किंच रायो धनानि दैवमानुषभेदेन द्विविधानि मघवानः धनवन्तश्चास्मान्यजमानान् सचन्तां सेवन्ताम् । (Meaning: Indra, the absolute God may bless my body organs and fill it with energy, grant wealth, etc).
A very popular example is the महामृत्युंजय मन्त्र in the RgVeda ॐ त्र्यम्बकं यजामहे सुगन्धिं पुष्टिवर्धनम् ।उर्वारुकमिव बन्धनान् मृत्योर्मुक्षीय मामृतात् ॥ Several japas of this mantra are considered to alleviate disease and mitigate risk to life. The Savitri (Gayatri) mantra is another mantra much revered for meditation.
What is a Bija mantra (बीजमंत्र)?
A Bija mantra is translated as a seed mantra due to its short and powerful structure.The Pranava or Om प्रणव is the holiest of all sacred monosyllable mantras as the Upanishadas prescribe. It is uttered at the beginning of all Vedic mantras. It can also be repeated singularly with sound or without sound for meditation. In Shrimad Bhagvat Gita, this category of mantras has been considered the best form of a sacrifice as Lord Krishna himself says यज्ञांनां जपयज्ञोस्मि! Several Upanishadas are dedicated to various deities and contain powerful mantras of few syllables, in the nature of बीजमंत्र (bIja mantra) meant for daily repetition. The Gayatri mantra is suitably modified for meditation upon specific deities. For example, ॐ श्री महालक्ष्म्यै च विद्महे विष्णु पत्न्यै च धीमहि तन्नो लक्ष्मी प्रचोदयात् ॐ॥ is the Gayatri mantra for goddess Laxmi.
The Mantras in the Non-Vedic Sanskrit scriptures:
In the Sanatan Dharma, mantras from various scriptures such as the Mahakavyas and the Puranas are popular in various rites. The famous statement of Mahabharata has explained that the purpose of these scriptures is to expound upon the Vedic Mantras, without which the Vedas can be misinterpreted:
इतिहासपुराणाभ्यांवेदंसमुपबृंहयेत।
बिभेत्यल्पश्रुताद् वेदो मामयं प्रहरिष्यतीति।।
The verses of the non-Vedic scriptures are called Shlokas श्लोक = couplet (zloka) and some of these are used as powerful mantras for attaining material and spiritual benefits through ritualistic application in the same way as Vedic mantras.
For example, in various rites, a sanctification ritual is followed; whereby water is sprinkled over the yajamana and various pooja objects after the पवित्रीकरण (pavitrIkaraN) mantra has been spoken by the priest. The commonly spoken sanctification mantra अपवित्रः पवित्रो वा सर्वावस्थां गतोSपि वा। यः स्मरेत् पुण्डरीकाक्षः स वाह्याभ्यन्तरः शुचिः।। is taken from Garuda Purana, although with minor variations it is also found in other Puranas. This is example of a करणमन्त्र; the meaning of this mantra is that whether sanctified or not, and in whichever condition, remembering Lord Vishnu makes one pure from both outside and from within.
Another example is Shri Ganesh mantra श्री गणेशाय नमः or गं गणपतये नमः which is taken from गणपत्यथर्वशीर्ष स्तोत्र These are क्रियमाणानुवादि mantras as they are uttered while a swastika is drawn to mark an auspicious beginning of any religious enterprise.
An example of a popular puranic अनुमन्त्रण मन्त्र is येन बद्धो बलि राजा दानवेन्द्रो महाबल: । तेन त्वाम् प्रतिबद्धनामि रक्षे माचल माचल: । (yena baddho Bali rAjA dAnavendro mahAbalaH; tena tvAm pratibaddhnAmi rakShe mAcala mAcalaH) taken from Bhavishya Purana. The priest utters this mantra at the time of tying a Raksha-sutra seven times around the wrist of the यजमान (yajmana) to ensure his safety and protection of the performer after the ceremony is complete. The various स्तुति (stuti) or worship mantras which are uttered by the temple priest after the आरती (Arati) of the deity has been performed are also anumantrana mantras..
Similarly, there are various जपमन्त्र in different puranas and epics. The five-letter mantra “Om Namah Shivay ” ओ3म नमः शिवाय is holy to the Shaivites and the twelve-letter mantra “Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaay” नमो भगवते वासुदेवाय is holy to the Vaishnavas. Similarly, हरेराम हरेराम राम राम हरे हरे हरे कृष्ण हरे कृष्ण हरे हरे “Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare, Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare” is the popular 16-word “Vaishnava Mahamantra” वैष्णव महामन्त्र which was popularized by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the 15th century and “Shri Rama Jai Rama Jai Jai Rama” श्रीराम जय राम जय जय राम known as the “Vijaya Mantra” popularized by Saint Samartha Rama Das of Maharashtra who was the Teacher of Chhatrapati Shivaji in the 17th century. Many sects of Hindus allow an initiation ceremony in which the disciple is imparted a secret बीजमंत्र by the Guru and which is repeated daily as a japa by the disciple in prescribed numbers.
The basic rule is that the shlokas in various non-Vedic scriptures which are in the nature of the adoration of the deity (स्तोत्र) or the pronouncement by the deity (देव वचन) or which declare the fruits or rewards of utterance (फलश्रुति) are applicable as mantras. The popular example of a स्तोत्र mantra in the adoration of Goddess Durga is सर्वमंगलमांगल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके। शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरी नारायणि नमोस्तु ते।। and the वचन uttered by the Goddess is सर्वा बाधा विनिर्मुक्तो धनधान्य सुतान्वितः।मनुष्यो मत्प्रसादेन भविष्यति न संशयः।। Both these mantras are from Durga Saptashati, a book in the Markandeya Purana, and are considered to carry mystic powers.
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Two very venerated mantras from the epics are the adoration स्तोत्र of Sun in the Ramayana, called आदित्य हृदय स्तोत्र which is a followed by its फलश्रुति.
The other set of mantras describes one thousand names of Lord Vishnu in the Mahabharata is called विष्णु सहस्रनाम स्तोत्र and it is also followed by the फलश्रुति.
The Mantras in the Non-Sanskrit tradition:
Besides, the aforesaid classical examples, several religious books in the Non-Sanskrit languages such as Pali and Tibetan in the Buddhist literature are considered to be Mantras. The शाबर sabara mantras were devised by the Nath Yogis, which appear as apparently meaningless syllables, though extremely powerful for material and spiritual upliftment. Several vernacular religious literature contains verses which have the authority of a mantra. Hanuman Chalisa by Tulasi Dasa is a popular example.
: certain couplets are treated as specific remedy to various problems. Like, नासै रोग हरै सब पीरा । जो सुमिरै हनुमत बलबीरा।। for alleviation of sickness and भूत पिसाच निकट नहिं आवैं । महाबीर जब नाम सुनावैं।। for warding off psychic evils. Several chaupaayis of the Ramacharitmanas by Tulasidas are considered to be the mantras to be used for human welfare.
Inference: Going by the above explanation the mantras of the Vedas and other Hindu scriptures predicate the lord who is depicted in the form of Pranava as the Creator, the nurturer, and the annihilator. Veda speaks of him as नेति-नेति (neti neti); for, He is the one without a beginning, the end, or the middle, and is omniscient. Mantras are the tool to experience God and his grace.
